The Coffee Crisis Essay Example for Free

The Coffee Crisis Essay To begin, The Coffee Crisis is about an acute coffee crisis and how it threatens millions of small coffee farmers around the world and is putting economic growth, as well as social and political stability, at risk in scores of coffee producing countries in Central and South America, Africa and Asia. In 2004, the governments of coffee producing countries were considering how to respond to the dramatic decline in coffee prices caused in part by a large increase in coffee production in Brazil and Vietnam. Coffee was the main source of income for roughly 25 million farmers, mostly small land holders, in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Coffee prices had hit 40 year lows in 2001 and had remained low since, resulting in real hardship for many farmers. A variety of alternative solutions had been suggested. (Gomez-Ibanez Quinlan, 2004) The International Coffee Organization was advocating increasing demand through programs promoting coffee consumption; the Inter-American Development Bank supported promotion but also thought some high-cost countries should get out of coffee, while the non-governmental organization Oxfam was pushing fair trade pricing. The coffee crisis is worldwide. It is affecting farmers in Central America, South America, Africa, and Asia. While the Arabica farmers in Costa Rica may be getting 40 cents per pound for their coffee cherries, the Robusta coffee farmers in Viet Nam are only receiving 15 cents a pound for theirs. Even the low cost producers are not benefiting from the current situation. This condition is created because the market place does not view coffee as a true commodity. It places premiums and discounts on both coffee types and coffee grades. While both markets may move up and down in tandem, the arbitrage, or spread between one Arabica and Robusta, does not give one farmer an economic competitive advantage over another. This fact tends to get glossed over in most economic discussions on the coffee crisis. Many analysts believe that oversupply is at the root of the present crisis. After the system of coffee export quotas (the International Coffee Agreement, or ICA), administered by the International Coffee Organization, collapsed in 1989, the regulation of coffee production and quality was left to each individual producer country. Almost immediately following the dissolution of the agreement, excessive quantities of coffee entered international markets, prices became quite volatile and the overall quality of the coffee began to decline. Many of the coffee producing nations, including Mexico, were simultaneously in the process of deregulating, privatizing, and otherwise liberalizing agricultural production and national agricultural institutions. This had the effect of exacerbating the uncertainties faced by coffee farmers at the end of the 1980s. The coffee crisis is structural. It was not caused by the cyclical nature of coffee agriculture that has produced the â€Å"boom-bust† cycles of the past. The change in the market place has been brought about by the concentration of buying power in the hands of a few firms that present coffee to the consumer as a â€Å"blended and branded† product, void of any links to type and grade. This has led to intense price competition for market share that has rewarded increased market share to low cost products in the short run at the expense of stability in the supply chain in the long run. Since the crisis is a structural problem and not a cyclical one, remedies are to be found by taking intervening actions. These actions would include a strengthening of coffee institutions, a realignment of market forces, a creation of suitable financial tools, and a promotion of sustainable agricultural practices. It must be emphasized that any direct market intervention, such as quotas or subsidies, would only be short term in effect and would not correct the structural problems. It must also be emphasized that what is required is a series of steps in a number of different areas, as no single step will produce the desired structural changes that are needed. The crisis in the coffee sector continues. Its impact cannot be understated, since coffee constitutes the livelihood of an estimated 25 million families around the world. In world trade, coffee is the second leading commodity, after petroleum. The worldwide coffee market spans some 71 countries, of which 51 are significant producers and 20 are key consumers. Prices have not kept up with production costs to the extent needed to make participation in the coffee business profitable for most producers, even though the crop year 2003-2004 witnessed a worldwide decrease in production. (Central America The Coffee Crisis: Effects and Strategies for Moving Forward, 1992) In coffee producing countries, which account for over 26% of world consumption, the situation is more diverse. In some countries, prices of coffee have fallen in local currency and consumption may therefore be stimulated. In Brazil, the largest coffee market among producing countries, the devaluation of the real has maintained prices of green coffee at pre-crisis levels. As a whole, consumption in these markets is not expected to suffer any major negative impact. The root cause of the coffee crisis can be linked to three factors: over production; under consumption; and market oligopoly. In short, these are all problems associated with the economics of coffee farming. Without resolution, they will lead to both social and environmental breakdowns. (Central America The Coffee Crisis: Effects and Strategies for Moving Forward, 1992). The crisis has been caused by a large increase in coffee production over the past several years by two countries Vietnam and Brazil. In the case of Vietnam, within ten years this country grew from a relatively insignificant producer to the world second largest – ahead of Colombia but behind Brazil, now producing well over 10 million bags annually and accounting for approximately 12% of world exports. (Central America The Coffee Crisis: Effects and Strategies for Moving Forward, 1992) To conclude, without economic remedies to the crisis, it is difficult to promote sustainable agricultural practices in coffee farming. While niche markets within the specialty coffee industry can provide some relief, the size of these markets makes them too small to be an effective solution. References: Central America The Coffee Crisis: Effects and Strategies for Moving Forward. (1992, July 19). Retrieved February 4, 2012, from Latin American and Carribean: http://web. worldbank. org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/LACEXT/0,,contentMDK:20606092~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:258554,00. html Gomez-Ibanez, J. , Quinlan, S. J. (2004). The Coffee Crisis.

The Slave Trade: British Industrial Revolution

The Slave Trade: British Industrial Revolution The debate over whether west African slave trade fueled the British industrial revolution or not has gone on for quite some time and will continue to do so for many more years. Research has been done, claims have been made, and there are arguments benefitting both sides of the debate. West African slave trade did, in fact, fuel the British industrial revolution and this can be found by researching the profits made by slave trade practices, the growth of two major British banks as the result of the profits, the growth of the transportation industry, the increase in overseas trade, and the support of the British people. The profits made by slave trade practices have been disputed by many historians with the argument that they have been grossly overstated. However, Barbara Solow, as cited by William Darity, Jr., uses the following quote to say just the opposite: If slave trade profits were eight percent of investment in Britain in 1770, is that small when today total corporate profits amount to forty percent? No industry manages as much as eight percent. Solows quote was made in 1980, so with the knowledge that no single industry was able to produce revenue of eight percent then, when industry was continuing to grow, it can be safely inferred that west African slave trade did provide significant profits that were used to promote the industrial revolution. Not only were the profits made by African slave trading large, but they were frequently invested into banks and textile factories, both of which were a huge part of the industrial revolution. Two of Britains largest and most successful banks, Barclays and Lloyds, each received a large amount of slave trade profits throughout the eighteenth century. Both of these banks, among others in Liverpool and Manchester, became very important to the industrial revolution as they were able to provide credit to new British industries as they were getting started. Although it is impossible to say that Britains industrial revolution would never have taken place if it had not been boosted by the profits provided by slave trade, it is easy to believe that it would have been postponed for a lengthy amount of time. The banking industry was not the only one that was launched during the time of slave trade. The transportation industry also grew. The growth of the transportation industry is quite easy to see in eighteenth century Britain because in order to go through the motions of triangular trade it was necessary for British crewmen to have access to ships. As more and more ships were built and then bought for use in triangular trade, it made it possible for the transportation industry to grow and, in turn, provide more capital for Britain and its growing industries, along with employment opportunities for British men. Although slave trade played a pivotal role in eighteenth century Britain, there were other things taking place that had a significant impact on society. Triangular trade, taking place between Britain, Africa, and North America, also played a part in Britains industrial revolution. According to David Richardson, the official value of British exports rose almost six fold over the century while imports increased over fivefold. An increase that large in the value of British exports results in another set of great profits being made, and many of the products that were exported could be tied directly back to the manual labor of west Africans purchased during the slave trade. Had the slave trade not taken place, Britains exports, imports, and trade in general would not have had the opportunity to grow as it did. Finally, the slave trade had the support of the British people. In 1788, Parliament held hearings on the slave trade practices and sought information to determine whether or not it should be abolished. Various people either testified or wrote letters to convey their feelings about the slave trade, and many expressed the view that abolishing slave trade would be detrimental to the health of Britains growing industries and society. James Penny wrote such a letter, and expressed his opinion by saying, Should this trade be abolished, it would not only affect the Commercial Interest, but also the Landed Property of the County of Lancaster, and more particularly the Town of Liverpool, whose fall, in that case, would be as rapid as its Rise has been outstanding. A second letter read, The effects of this trade to Great Britain are beneficial to an infinite extent and there is hardly any Branch of Commerce in which this nation is concerned that does not derive some advantage from it. As these are real quotes from British citizens during the time of the slave trade, it becomes obvious that the men working in the newly industrialized version of Britain felt that the countrys industrial success came about because of the slave trade. As mentioned earlier, the debate over whether the slave trade truly fueled Britains industrial revolution is not new. However, there is significant evidence pointing to west African slave trade having a profound effect on British industrialization, and this evidence can be seen in the profits made by slave trade practices, the growth of British banks as the result of the profits, the growth of the transportation industry, the increase in overseas trade, and the overall support of slave trade by the British people.

Economic Issues of Human Smuggling in Sri Lanka

Economic Issues of Human Smuggling in Sri Lanka Human smuggling is one of fast growing illegal activity in the world. It is explain as many of peoples are moving from developing countries to developed countries using illegal method for the find better living conditions. This is more unsecured way for the find a betterment of life because while the they transport in unsafe and they have risk in be victim of human trafficking, or mental and physical abuse. Human trafficking involves sexual exploitation or labor exploitation of woman, child as well as adult. The English word slave derives through Old French and Medieval Latin from the medieval word for the Slavic people of Central and Eastern Europe in 14th century Definition:- Human smuggling are define as facilitation, transportation or attempted to transportation in illegally entre of persons in across the intentional border. It causes to violate the one or more countries law using fraudulent documents. it is mainly involve in financial or material gains for the smuggler. The human smuggling has two type. a) Human smuggling b) Human trafficking a) Human smuggling It is illegal migration though the international border and the migrant have freedom leave and change job in the new country. Human smuggle are co operating process and they are not necessary victim of the crime of smuggling. b) human trafficking They are element of force , fraud or coercion. They have no freedom and become victims. They have enslaved or limited movements. It can be happen in same community or after the human smuggling. Many times these are victims of physically or mentally. They become victim of sexual abuse of physical abused. It may happen in child, woman of adult. The victims are found in sweatshops, domestic work, restaurant work, agricultural labor, prostitution and sex entertainment. These two types are more interrelated. Many of human smuggling may be a human trafficking. The both system are common the elements of fraud, force, or coercion. Both are illegal and violated the one or two countries law. It may be costly for one or two countries. 2. Historical background Human smuggle has long history. In the ancient Mesopotamian and Mediterranean civilization, Egypt , Akkadian empire, Assyria, ancient Greece and Rome have a human salve systems. The rich families have two salves for a servants and land lord have more than hundred of salves. Salve are become by the punishment for crime, enslavement of prisoners of war, child abundance and birth child of slave. Salve population is 25 percent of the total populations of Rome. The salves are more importance factor of the Rome economy. Trafficking in persons (TIP) is another name of modern day form of slavery. It is the exploitation of people through force, coercion, threat, and deception. It also includes human rights abuses such as debt bondage, deprivation of liberty, and lack of control over freedom and labor. Slavery system peoples are treated as property , slaves losees their will form they captured,purchase or birth and deprived of right. Nuber of slaves are smallest proposition in the world aas 12 ro 27 million. Most of them are debt salves in south Asia. Slavery have long history and engage with human culture. In prehistoric graves in 8000BC found in lower Egypt used a Libyan people enslaved a san tribe. Slavery is began after the Neolithic revolution about 11,000 year ago. The bible says slavery is etalished institution. Ancient Slavery was known in almost every ancient civilization, such as Ancient Egypt, Ancient China, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Ancient India, Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the Islamic Caliphate, and the pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas. These institutions were a composed of debt-slavery, punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoners of war, child abandonment, and the birth of slave children to slaves. slavery in Ancient Greece started from Mycenaean Greece. Twenty percant of the population of Classical Athens were slaves. The men are become slaves by nature call as natural slavery ,it is accepted by the Aristotle. after the Roman Republic expanding outward, the enslaved become pominant these are consist of Europe and the Mediterranean. Greeks, Illyrians, Berbers, Germans, Britons, Thracians, Gauls, Jews, Arabs, and many more were slaves used not only for labour, but also for amusement. The late Republican era, slavery had become a vital economic pillar in the wealth of Rome and very significant part of Roman society. over 25% of the population of Ancient Rome was enslaved. During the emergence of the Roman Empire to its eventual decline, at least 100 million people were captured or sold as slaves throughout the Mediterranean and its hinterlands. Medieval The early medieval slave trade the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world were the destinations, the important sources are pagan Central and Eastern Europe, along with the Caucasus and Tartary. Viking, Arab, Greek and Jewish merchants were all involved in the slave trade. From the 11th to the 19th century, North African Barbary Pirates engaged in capture Christian slaves and sell at slave markets in places such as Algeria and Morocco.In 1086, nearly 10% of the English population were slaves. The Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large numbers of slaves into the Islamic world. The Ottoman devÃ…Å ¸irme-janissary system enslaved and forcibly converted to Islam an estimated 500,000 to one million non-Muslim adolescent males. Middle East The Islamic world is become a centre of acecient slave trade, it is centre of collection slave and distribution them to central asia and Europe. Zanzibar was once East Africas main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year. between 11 and 18 million African slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 AD to 1900 AD. Europe Approximately 10-20% of the rural population of Carolingian Europe consisted of slaves. The trade of slaves in England was made illegal in 1102. Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second serfdom. According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries. There was also an extensive trade in Christian slaves in the Black Sea region for several centuries until the Crimean Khanate was destroyed by the Russian Empire in 1783 Africa In early Islamic states of the western Sudan, Ghana, Mali, Segou and Songhai about a third of the population were slaves. In, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the Senegambia population was enslaved. In the 19th century about half of the Sierra Leone , Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria, the Kongo, and Angola population consisted of slaves. Between 65% to 90% population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved. approximately 2 million to 2.5 million people there were slaves. The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million. Asia in 1908, women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. A slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaves was centred in the Central Asian khanate of Khiva. there were an estimated 8 million or 9 million slaves in India in 1841. Slavery was abolished in both Hindu and Muslim India by the Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843. In Istanbul about one-fifth of the population consisted of slaves.[83] abolished slavery in China in 1906, and the law became effective in 1910. Slave rebellion in China at the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century was so extensive that owners eventually converted the institution into a female-dominated one.The Nangzan in Tibetan history were, according to Chinese sources, hereditary household slaves. Indigenous slaves existed in Korea. During the Joseon Dynasty about 30% to 50% of the Korean population were slaves. In Southeast Asia, a quarter to a third of the population of some areas of Thailand and Burma were slaves. Americas the Mercado de Escravos, the first slave market created in Portugal for the sale of imported African slaves opened in 1444. in 1552 up to10 percent of the population of Lisbon consist of black African slaves. In the second half of the 16th century, European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas. Spain had wider Atlantic slave trade. The Spanish colonies were the earliest Europeans to use African slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola,The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501. England played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade. the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution. The Transatlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo empire ,the Ashanti Empire, the kingdom of Dahomey, and the Aro Confederacy. Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded for goods. An estimated 12 million Africans arrived in the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. An estimated 645,000 were brought to what is now the United States. The usual estimate is that about 15 per cent of slaves died during the voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships. The largest number of slaves were shipped to Brazil. Although the trans-Atlantic slave trade ended shortly after the American Revolution, slavery remained a central economic institution in the Southern states. By 1860, 500,000 slaves had grown to 4 million. The plantation system, based on tobacco growing in Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky, and rice in South Carolina, expanded into lush new cotton lands in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi-and needed more slaves. But slave importation became illegal in 1808. Although complete statistics are lacking, it is estimated that 1,000,000 slaves moved west from the Old South between 1790 and 1860. Most of the slaves were moved from Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Michael Tadman, in a 1989 book Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South, indicates that 60-70% of interregional migrations were the result of the sale of slaves. In 1820 a child in the Upper South had a 30% chance to be sold south by 1860. ultimately the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in December 1865, which ended legalized slavery in the United States. Contemporary slavery Conditions that can be considered slavery include debt bondage, indentured servitude, serfdom, domestic servants kept in captivity, adoption in which children are effectively forced to work as slaves, child soldiers, and forced marriage. Current situation Slavery still exists, although in theory it has now been outlawed in all countries. Mauritania abolished it in law in 1981 and was the last country to do so see Abolition of slavery timeline. Enslavement is also taking place in parts of Africa, in the Middle East, and in South Asia. In June and July 2007, 570 people who had been enslaved by brick manufacturers in Shanxi and Henan were freed by the Chinese government. Among those rescued were 69 children. In 2008, the Nepalese government abolished the Haliya system of forced labour, freeing about 20,000 people. An estimated 40 million people in India, most of them Dalits or untouchables, are bonded workers, working in slave-like conditions in order to pay off debts. In Brazil more than 5,000 slaves were rescued by authorities in 2008 as part of a government initiative to eradicate slavery. In Mauritania alone, it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved with many used as bonded labour. Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007. In Niger, slavery is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population.According to the U.S. Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in CÃ ´te dIvoire (Ivory Coast) in the worst forms of child labor in 2002. Poverty has forced at least 225,000 children in Haitis cities into slavery as unpaid household servants, called reste avec (French: stay with). In 2005, the International Labour Organization provided an estimate of 12.3 million forced labourers in the world,. Siddharth Kara has also provided an estimate of 28.4 million slaves at the end of 2006 divided into the following three categories: bonded labour/debt bondage (18.1 million), forced labour (7.6 million), and trafficked slaves (2.7 million).[164] Kara provides a dynamic model to calculate the number of slaves in the world each year, with an estimated 29.2 million at the end of 2009. Abolitionism The Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament on 25 March 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout the British Empire, and the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard. In 1833 the BritishParliament decreed an end to slavery throughout the British Empire, and on August 1, 1834, the British Emancipation Act came into effect. After January 1, 1808, the importation of slaves into the United States was prohibited, but not the internal slave trade, nor involvement in the international slave trade externally. Legal slavery persisted; and those slaves already in the U.S. would not be legally emancipated for nearly 60 years. The American Civil War, beginning in 1861, led to the end of slavery in the United States. In 1863 Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves held in the Confederate States; the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1865) prohibited slavery throughout the country. On December 10, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which declared freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. Human trafficking Trafficking in human beings is one method of obtaining slaves. Victims are typically recruited through deceit or trickery sale by family members, recruitment by former slaves, or outright abduction. Victims are forced into a debt slavery situation by coercion, deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat, physical force, debt bondage or even force-feeding with drugs of abuse to control their victims. In last decade every government in the world are taken various steps to controlling human smuggling and trafficking. In 2000, united states introduce trafficking victim protection act (TVPA) for the protection of children and woman. according to the Palermo protocol focus to the global community combating the human trafficking. 3. Organizational spread Human smuggling has various form of organize way and various with individual effort to internationally organized manner. Reasons for human smuggling human smuggling is due to the various reasons are embedded. In generally extreme poverty, lack of economic opportunity, civil unrest and political uncertainty are the core determinant of human smuggling. Poverty The poor living condtion and poor income lead to the illegal migration. the economic unrest and propoverty group are willig to illigale migration. in 1994 economic crisis in Mexico, and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was associated with widespread poverty and a lower valuation for the peso relative to the dollar. It lead to the start of a massive Mexican emigration, in which net illegal migration to the US increased every year from the mid-1990s until the mid 2000s. Overpopulation overpopulation is a Population growth that exceeds the carrying capacity of an area. it cause problems such as pollution, water crisis, and poverty. World population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6.7 billion today. In Mexico alone, population has grown from 13.6 million in 1900 to 107 million in 2007.it is cause to the increase of emigration. Family reunification Some illegal immigrants seek to live with loved ones, such as a spouse or other family members. Family reunification visas may be applied for by legal residents or naturalized citizens to bring their family members into a destination state legally, but these visas may be limited in number and subject to yearly quotas. This may force their family members to enter illegally to reunify. Mexican national to emigrate illegally to the US increases dramatically if they have one or more family members already residing in the United States, legally or illegally. Wars and asylum Illegal immigration may be prompted by the desire to escape civil war or repression in the country of origin. Non-economic push factors include persecution, frequent abuse, bullying, oppression, and genocide, and risks to civilians during war. Political motives traditionally motivate refugee flows to escape dictatorship for instance. According to its estimates, the number of unauthorized Colombian residents in the United States almost tripled from 51,000 in 1990 to 141,000 in 2000. According to the US Census Bureau, the number of authorized Colombian immigrants in the United States in 2000 was 801,363. El Salvador is another country which experienced substantial emigration as a result of civil war and repression. The largest per-capita source of immigrants to the United States comes from El Salvador. Types of human smuggling human smuggling are classified in various ways. It can be Border crossing Immigrants from nations that do not have automatic visa agreements, or who would not otherwise qualify for a visa, often cross the borders illegally in some areas like the United States-Mexico border, the Mona Channel between the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, the Strait of Gibraltar, Fuerteventura, and the Strait of Otranto. Because these methods are illegal, they are often dangerous. Would-be immigrants have been known to suffocate in shipping containers, boxcars, and trucks, sink in shipwrecks caused by unseaworthy vessels, die of dehydration or exposure during long walks without water. An official estimate puts the number of people who died in illegal crossings across the U.S.-Mexican border between 1998 and 2004 at 1,954 Human smuggling is the practice of intermediaries aiding illegal immigrants in crossing over international borders in financial gain, often in large groups. Human smuggling differs from, but is sometimes associated with, human trafficking. A human smuggler will facilitate illegal entry into a country for a fee, but on arrival at their destination, the smuggled person is usually free. Trafficking involves a process of using physical force, fraud, or deception to obtain and transport people. Overstaying a visa Some illegal immigrants enter a country legally and then overstay or violate their visa. For example, most of the estimated 200,000 illegal immigrants in Canada are refugee claimants whose refugee applications were rejected but who have not yet been ejected from the country. A related way of becoming an illegal immigrant is through bureaucratic means. For example, a person can be allowed to remain in a country or be protected from expulsion because he/she needs special pension for a medical condition, deep love for a native, or even to avoid being tried for a crime in his/her native country,without being able to regularize his/her situation and obtain a work and/or residency permit, let alone naturalization, Hence, categories of people being neither illegal immigrants nor legal citizens are created, living in a judicial no mans land. Trafficking is a profitable and the fastest growing criminal industry in the world. It is the second largest criminal activity, following the drug trade. Bonded labor- it is known labor trafficking today and the most widely used method of enslaving people. Victims become bonded laborers for repayment for a loan or service. the terms and conditions have not been defined or in which the value of the victims services as reasonably assessed is not applied toward the liquidation of the debt. The value of their work is greater than the original sum of money borrowed. Forced labor- victims are forced to work against their own will, under the threat of violence or some other form of punishment, their freedom is restricted and a degree of ownership is exerted. Men are at risk of being trafficked for unskilled work, which globally generates $31bn according to the International Labor Organization. Forms of forced labor can include domestic servitude; agricultural labor; sweatshop factory labor; janitorial, food service and other service industry labor; and begging. Sex trafficking- victims are found in dire circumstances and easily targeted by traffickers. Individuals, circumstances, and situations vulnerable to traffickers include homeless individuals, runaway teens, displaced homemakers, refugees, and drug addicts. Trafficked people are the most vulnerable and powerless minorities in a region. victims are consistently exploited from any ethnic and social background. Traffickers, also known as pimps or madams, exploit vulnerabilities and lack of opportunities, while offering promises of marriage, employment, education, and/or an overall better life. However, in the end, traffickers force the victims to become prostitutes or work in the sex industry. Various work in the sex industry includes prostitution, dancing in strip clubs, performing in pornographic films and pornography, and other forms of involuntary servitude. Child labor -it is likely to be hazardous to the physical, mental, spiritual, moral, or social development of children and can interfere with their education. The International Labor Organization estimates worldwide that there are 246 million exploited children aged between 5 and 17 involved in debt bondage, forced recruitment for armed conflict, prostitution, pornography, the illegal drug trade, the illegal arms trade, and other illicit activities around the world. 4. Present status According to U.S. Government estimates, 600,000 to 800,000 victims are trafficked worldwide every year and 14,500 to 17,500 are trafficked into the United States. Women and children are became largest group of victims. Trafficking victims are frequently physically and psychologically abused. Global human trafficking rotes Source:-International organization for migration 1996 5. Issues human smuggling has a multidimensional effect on the society. It has individual impact as well as social impact. It have effect on original country as well as migrated country. Slavery After the end of the legal international slave trade by the European nations and the United States in the early 19th century, the illegal importation of slaves has continued. Although not as common as in Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America, some women are undoubtedly smuggled into the United States and Canada. People have been kidnapped or tricked into slavery to work as laborers in factories. Those trafficked in this manner often face additional barriers to escaping slavery, since their status as illegal immigrants makes it difficult for them to gain access to help or services. Burmese women trafficked into Thailand and forced to work in factories or as prostitutes may not speak the language and may be vulnerable to abuse by police due to their illegal immigrant status. Some people forced into sexual slavery face challenges of charges of illegal immigration. Each year there are several hundred illegal Immigrant deaths along the U.S.-Mexico border. Death by exposure occurs in the deserts of Southwestern United States during the hot summer season. a). Social cultural impact on human smuggling The flows of the illegal migration are common in the migration happen in low social economic condition area to well socio economic condition area. That is commonly in developing countries to developed countries in international arena. It is mainly due the peoples are expected well socio economic condition and living opportunities in the new migrant area. According to the U.S. Department of State in a 2008 research, approximately 800,000 people are trafficked across national borders, which does not include millions trafficked within their own countries. Approximately 80 percent of transnational victims are women and girls and up to 50 percent are minors. While the majority of victims are women, and sometimes children, who are forced into prostitution victims also include men, women and children who are forced into manual labour. Due to the illegal nature of human trafficking, its exact extent is unknown. A U.S. Government report published in 2005, estimates that 600,000 to 800,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year. This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally. Another research effort revealed that between 1.5 million and 1.8 million individuals are trafficked either internally or internationally each year. sex trafficking victims are 500,000 to 600,000 in each year. b). Economic impact, The weighted average global sales price of a slave is calculated to be approximately $340, with a high of $1,895 for the average trafficked sex slave, and a low of $40 to $50 for debt bondage slaves in part of Asia and Africa. Worldwide slavery is a criminal offense but slave owners can get very high returns for their risk. According to researcher Siddharth Kara, the profits generated worldwide by all forms of slavery in 2007 were $91.2 billion. That is second only to drug trafficking in terms of global criminal enterprises. The weighted average annual profits generated by a slave in 2007 was $3,175, with a low of an average $950 for bonded labor and $29,210 for a trafficked sex slave. Approximately forty percent of all slave profits each year are generated by trafficked sex slaves, representing slightly more than 4 percent of the worlds 29 million slaves. Economists have attempted to model during which circumstances slavery appear and disappear. One observation is that slavery becomes more desirable for land owners when land is abundant but labour is not, so paid workers can demand high wage. The maintains slavery was a profitable method of production, especially on bigger plantations growing cotton that fetched high prices in the world market.. Slavery is more common when the labour done is relatively simple and thus easy to supervise, such as large scale growing of a single crop. It is much more difficult and costly to check that slaves are doing their best and with good quality when they are doing complex tasks. Therefore, slavery was seen as the most efficient method of production for large scale crops like sugar and cotton, whose output was based on economies of scale. The total annual revenue for trafficking in persons is estimated to be between USD$5 billion and $9 billion. The Council of Europe states, People trafficking has reached epidemic proportions over the past decade, with a global annual market of about $42.5 billion. The United Nations estimates nearly 2.5 million people from 127 different countries are being trafficked around the world. Economic model Under the basic cost/benefit argument for illegal immigration, potential immigrants believe the probability and benefits of successfully migrating to the destination country are greater than the costs. These costs may include restrictions living as an illegal immigrant in the destination country, leaving family and ways of life behind, and the probability of being caught and resulting sanctions. Proposed economic models, based on a cost/benefit framework, have varying considerations and degrees of complexity. Neoclassical model The neoclassical economic model looks only at the probability of success in immigrating and finding employment, and the increase in real income an illegal immigrant can expect. This explanation would account for the economies of the two states, including how much of a pull the destination country has in terms of better-paying jobs and improvements in quality of life. It also describes a push that comes from negative conditions in the home country like lack of employment or economic mobility. Neoclassical theory also accounts for the probability of successful illegal emigration. Factors that affect this include as geographic proximity, border enforcement, probability and consequences of arrest, ease of illegal employment, and chances of future legalization. This model concludes that in the destination country, illegal workers tend to add to and compete with the pool of unskilled laborers. Illegal workers in this model are successful in finding employment by being willing to be paid lower wages than native-born workers are, sometimes below the minimum wage. Economist George Borjas supports aspects of this model, calculating that real wages of US workers without a high school degree declined by 9% due to competition from illegal immigrant workers. Gordon Hanson and Douglas Massey have criticized the model for being oversimplified and not accounting for contradictory evidence. Trade liberalization In recent years, developing states are pursuing the benefits of globalization by joining decline to liberalize trade. But rapid opening of domestic markets may lead to displacement of large numbers of agricultural or unskilled workers, who are more likely to seek employment and a higher quality of life by illegal emigration. This is a frequently cited argument to explain how the North American Free Trade Association may have impoverished Mexican farmers who were unable to compete with the higher productivity of US subsidized agriculture, especially for corn. NAFTA may have also unexpectedly raised educational requirements for industrial jobs in Mexico, Structural demand in developed states Douglas Massey argues that a bifurcating labor market in developed nations creates a structural demand for unskilled immigrant labor to fill undesirable jobs that native-born citizens do not take, regardless of wages. This theory states that postindustrial economies have a widening gap between well-paying, white-collar jobs that require ever higher levels of education and human capital, which native-born citizens and legal immigrants can qualify to take, and bottom-tier jobs that are stigmatized and require no education. These underclass jobs include harvesting crops, unskilled labor in landscaping and construction, house-cleaning, and maid and busboy work in hotels and restaurants, all of which have a disproportionate number of illegal workers. Since the decline of middle-class blue-collar jobs in manufacturing and industry, younger native-born generations have chosen to acquire higher degrees now that there are no longer respectable blue-collar careers that a worker

Courageouse Fear and what it takes to be courageous :: essays research papers

. Courageous Fear And What It Means To Be A Courageous Soldier Many soldiers of today know what courage is. Courage is doing what is needed to do, not what absolutely must be done. In Tim O’Brien’s â€Å"The Things They Carried†, the soldiers were not what one would think of as courageous. The soldiers were courageous in the sense that their courage came from fear of dishonor. The soldiers did what must be done in order to keep their honorable reputation. True courage was not present until the end of the story. *Courage in the context of combat in this story was not real courage; it was merely going through the motions of being in war.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"So, soldiers dream; they pretend and deny in order to diminish the horror. Precisely because it captures that human reality in the midst of war and unbelievable horror, O’Brien claims that â€Å"Cacciato is the most realistic thing I’ve written...† (Tim O’Brien and the Art of the True War Story: â€Å"Night March† and â€Å"Speaking of Courage†)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   *The fear of being in the war caused them to have mistaken courage. The objects they carry give the soldiers a sense of courage and luck in having these things.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Truly, the men recognize the delusional nature of their fantasy, for they knew that† they would never be at a loss for things to carry.† The implication that they will be carrying their experiences once they return also appears here, in the narrator’s evocation of â€Å"the great American war chest,†which includes Fourth of July Sparklers, Easter eggs, and the forests of Minnesota. â€Å" (The Things They Carried, Criticism about Tim O’Brien)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   *What it means to be a courageous soldier.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"It’s such a complicated subject, it’s hard to know what to say. It’s easy to break down courage into categories.

Andy Warhol Essay -- Biography

Hailed as the founding father of the Pop Art movement in the late 1950's and early 1960's, Andy Warhol, through his endeavors, brought forward society's obsession with mass culture and allowed it to become the subject of his art. He produced works that defied and challenged the popular notion of what art should be by disputing the "traditional conventions pertaining to the uniqueness, authenticity, and authorship" of art (Faerna 28). However, it is an injustice to say that Warhol's goals primarily included the desire to create such a ground-breaking and salient style of American art or to entertain the public by making his own artistic contributions. Rather, Andy Warhol's interests were more entwined in his own self-interest and greed. Although a fraction of Andy Warhol's inspiration resided in his ambition to create a "unique" and exotic style of American art, his main motivation was purely materialistic and involved acquiring large sums of money and publicity to fuel his obsession with wealth and fame. Andy Warhol's experiences throughout his difficult and poverty-stricken early life are one among many possible explanations for Warhol's addiction to materialism later on in his life. Born on August 6, 1928 into the slums of Pittsburgh, Andy Warhol was the fourth child of working-class Slovakian immigrant parents who barely spoke English. As a child, Warhol developed chorea, an illness which causes abnormal involuntary movements. Consequently, this contributed to his isolation as a child as he was often bed-ridden and thus became an outcast at school (Gale American Decades). During his early years, he also developed a fascination for fame and recognition as he would constantly amass pictures of celebrities and movie sta... ...sted in the chemical processes that went into forming Oxidation Painting; rather, he was more concerned with converting these bodily fluids into something precious and valuable. Oxidation Painting was an attempt by Warhol to project his persona into the media in order to garner publicity and attention. Furthermore, Oxidation Painting remains as Warhol’s most economically valuable work. Now, twenty-three years after Warhol’s death, his face and art are on T-shirts, iPods, blue jeans, sunglasses, Christmas cards, handbags, skateboards and wallpaper. His reputation and popularity are both endless and his works of art continue to fetch enormous sums of money. Even with his death, Warhol’s name continues to be met with both publicity and infamy. Ultimately, Andy Warhol’s legacy lies with his outlandish and exotic style of art and his lust for materialism and wealth.

Corporate Bonds †Business Finance Essay

Bond – is defined as a long-term debt of a firm or the government set forth in writing and made under seal. Kinds of Bond 1. Government Bonds – are those issued by the government to finance its activities. 2. Corporate Bonds – are those issued by private corporations to finance their long -term funding requirements. Bonds as Distinguished from Stocks 1.A bond is a debt instrument while stock is an instrument of ownership. 2.Bondholders have priority over stockholders when payments are made by the company. 3.Interest payments due to bonds are fixed, while dividends to stockholders are contingent upon earning and must be declared by the board of directors. 4.Bonds have specific maturity date, at which time, repayment of the principal is due. In contrast, stocks are instrument of permanent capital financing and does not have maturity dates. 5.Bondholders have no vote and no influence on the management of the firm, except when the provisions of the bond and the indenture agreement are not met. Alternative way of bond Issuance Bonds are issued through any of the following ways: 1. Public Offering – involves selling of corporate bonds to the general public through investment bankers. 2. Private Placement – is a sale of bonds directly to an institution and is a private agreement between the issuing company and the financial institution without public examination. I. BONDS by Type of Security Debentures – are general credit bonds not secured by specific property. Mortgage Bonds – are those which are secured by a lien on specially named property as land, buildings, equipment, and other fixed assets. Assumed Bond – There are times when a corporation buys another corporation, or is merged with another. Guaranteed Bonds – is a type of bond in which the payment of interest, or principal, or both, is guaranteed by one or more individuals or corporations. Joint Bonds – There are times when a property is owned jointly by several companies. II. BONDS by manner of participation in earnings Coupon Bonds – these are bonds having attachments of a series of postdated certificates payable to the bearer for the interest over the life of the bond. Registered Bonds – these are bonds wherein the names of the owners are recorded on the transfer books of the company. Participating Bonds – these are bonds which stipulate a fixed coupon rate but which also provide a method of receiving additional income over and above this minimum sum. Bonds with Warrants – Bonds may also have warrants attached to them. The warrants is an option or a right, exercisable by its holder, to purchase stock at a stated price during a stipulated period of time. Bonds with Junior Security Attached – these are bonds which are issued along with some shares of stock in a package or block sale. III. BONDS by method of retirement Serial Bonds – is one among a group of bonds a part of which mature semi-annually or annually instead of all on a single date. Sinking Fund Bonds – Bonds may also be gradually retired with the provision of a sinking fund. Callable Bonds – The are bonds with provisions that the terms of the issue can be cancelled or called. Convertible Bonds – These are bonds which may be exchanged for the common stock of the issuing corporation at a fixed price, at a pre-determined redemption date and at the option of the bondholder. Perpetual Bonds – These are bonds which cannot be redeemed by demanding repayment. THE INDENTURE AND TRUSTEE Indenture – is a contract between the corporation and the trustee on behalf of the bondholders. Trustee – is a person who handles monies or property on behalf of another in a trust.

To what extent was the USA’s response Essay

In the years 1991 to 2004 the USA’s response international aggression was often based on protecting its own national interests. Post 9/11 especially saw the USA base nearly all of its responses on protecting its own national interests. However, on some occasions prior to 9/11 they did show some desire to protect global interests rather than just their own. Due to the events of the 11th September 2001 the USA began its war on terror, and specifically targeted was George Bush’s ‘axis of evil’ which included; Iran, Iraq and North Korea. The USA used their war on terror so to legitimise their actions worldwide thus destroying any hopes for a post cold war collective international security, therefore basing their response to international aggression on protecting their own national interests. This is seen with the invasion of Afghanistan in October 2001. Together with Britain they acted unilaterally in order to remove the al-Qaeda and capture bin Laden, who was the prime suspect for the 9/11 attacks. The USA believed its actions were justified by labelling them as self defence under Article 51 of the UN charter. This clearly shows that the USA based its responses to international aggression on protecting their own national interests. In addition, the USA further showed that their response to international aggression was based on their own national interests with their invasion of Iraq in March 2003. The USA believed Saddam Hussein to have been harbouring weapons of mass destruction which could be made available to the al-Qaeda to which they invaded with Britain, legitimising their actions by again stating it was due to self defence as they perceived themselves to be under threat. This was against the wishes of member counties in the United Nations (UN), as many believed there was little evidence to support their claim of Iraq having weapons of mass destruction. However, the USA only ignored these beliefs and continued to respond to international aggression based on protecting the ir own interests. Furthermore, the USA often decided to not work with the UN. This was because the USA’s own national interests were not being fully served through doing so. This resulted in the UN becoming weaker. This is clearly seen in Somalia in 1992-1995. The USA withdrew all its support by 1994 and with it their commitment towards any multilateral  military action. This withdrawal caused the UN mission in Somalia to fail and the country to be left without any central government, facing considerable humanitarian crises. This further shows how the USA based its response to international aggression on protecting its own national interests. However, as stated, the USA did show some desire to base its response to international aggression prior to 9/11. For example; the 1991 Gulf war with Kuwait and Iraq which they worked collectively with the UN. Iraq had seized considerable amount of the world’s oil supply by invading Kuwait. The USA went through the UN Security Council and committed large numbers of troops and also formed a coalition task force comprised of Syria and Egypt. The USA and its coalition task force took back Kuwait on January 1991. Furthermore, the USA opted not to overthrow Hussein’s government. This showed that the USA had some desire to base its response to international aggression not just on protecting their own national interests. Post 9/11 the USA were a part of some very small missions with the UN. This showed a small desire to base its response to international aggression on other goals other than protecting its own national interests such as world peace. An example of this is Cambodia in 1993. The US helped the UN produce a durable settlement to the Cambodian conflict and implement free elections. Overall, the USA responded to international aggression based on protecting its own national interests however, their response cannot be said to be ‘solely’ based on protecting their national interests. Indeed, this was the case with nearly all of their responses post 9/11 however; prior to 9/11 they did base some actions on furthering global interests rather than just their own. This is because 9/11 was a pivotal moment in USA relations with the rest of the world because of their war on terror and due to the fact they legitimised their actions worldwide through the war. In effect, they became a complete imperialist state that only really aimed at protecting its only national interests.